Vitamins, Minerals, and the Billion-Dollar Supplement Industry

Supermarket aisles are stocked with an overwhelming variety of pills and powders, each claiming to enhance everything from brain function to immunity. Since their invention, the food supplement industry has boomed into a multi-billion-dollar industry, projected to grow by 6.71% over the next five years. But what’s the story behind these supplements, and what do they actually include?

It all began with 16th-century sailors suffering from scurvy during long sea voyages, a disease characterized by bleeding gums and swollen limbs. Despite its prevalence, the cause remained a mystery for centuries. It wasn’t until the 18th century that Scottish physician James Lind linked scurvy to a lack of citrus fruits in the sailors’ diet. This led to the realisation that certain nutrients—later identified as vitamins—are essential for preventing diseases.

By the 1920s and 1930s, scientists successfully isolated specific vitamins, such as vitamin C, which prevents scurvy, and vitamin D, which helps prevent rickets, a bone-deforming disease in children. These discoveries led to the fortification of everyday foods - like adding vitamin D to milk - significantly reducing the prevalence of such diseases. As the understanding of vitamins deepened, they began to be marketed not only as a way to prevent deficiencies but also as essential components for overall well-being.^1,2

Cod liver oil is a dietary supplement derived from the liver of cod fish. Historically, Cod liver was used to treat rheumatism, followed by rickets in 1824. By the 1930s, it was frequently given to children to help prevent conditions caused by vitamin D deficiency. Photos via Getty.

Since that time, the food supplement industry has expanded significantly in variety and volume. In 2024, the global market for vitamins and minerals is expected to generate a massive €29.35 billion in revenue. To put that in perspective, it averages out to about €3.79 per person worldwide every year—a considerable figure given the global population.³

The United States plays a leading role in this market, where the food supplement industry has gone from about 4,000 products in 1994 to more than 95,000 on the market today. On average, every American spends about $130 every year on vitamins, minerals, herbal products, and other food supplements.^3,4,5  But, what are these food supplements actually?

Food or Medicine: What are Food Supplements? 

The easy availability of food supplements in supermarkets and pharmacies makes them convenient to buy, but it also creates confusion about their true purpose. This raises the question: 'What exactly are they?'

Food supplements are concentrated sources of essential nutrients like vitamins and minerals, or other beneficial substances that can affect your body’s nutritional and physiological balance. They come in various forms—pills, tablets, capsules, or even liquids, each carefully measured to deliver a specific dose, known as the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI). The ingredients in these supplements vary widely, including not only vitamins and minerals but also amino acids, fatty acids, fibre, and a variety of plant and herbal extracts.⁵

In the European Union, food supplements are regulated just like any other food product, which entails important responsibilities. It’s up to manufacturers, importers, suppliers, and distributors to ensure the safety of the supplements they bring to market. These products must meet the same strict EU standards on contaminants, pesticide residues, additives, and health claims as all other foods. Additionally, they are only allowed to include authorised ingredients, must follow precise labelling rules and have to be tested for safety before entering the market.⁶

Unlike the strict regulations in the European Union, the U.S. takes a more relaxed approach to food supplements. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) doesn’t review or approve supplements for safety or effectiveness before they enter the market. Instead, it’s up to the manufacturers to ensure their products are safe, and the FDA only steps in if problems arise after the product is already on the shelves. While this allows for a wide variety of supplements, it also opens the door to potential concerns like microbial contamination, adulteration with synthetic drugs, and mislabeling of ingredients. With so many products available, the FDA itself admits it often doesn’t know when new supplements are introduced, making it hard to maintain a comprehensive list of everything sold in the U.S.^{7, 8, 9}

Vitamins, Minerals and Beyond

Micronutrients, better known as vitamins and minerals, are the tiny powerhouses our bodies require in small amounts to function effectively. Unlike macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats, they don't provide energy, but they are essential for maintaining our overall health.

Vitamins are organic compounds produced by bacteria, plants, and animals, and play a crucial role in our well-being. The term "vitamin" comes from the Latin “vita,” meaning life—a fitting name given their importance. Of the 14 essential vitamins, our bodies can only produce three—vitamin D, niacin, and choline—though not in sufficient amounts. This makes it necessary to obtain them through our diet, and in the case of vitamin D, from sunlight as well.

While many minerals exist in nature, only 14 are vital for our survival. These inorganic compounds originate from non-living sources like rocks, soil, and water. We absorb them directly by drinking water or indirectly through the plants and animals we consume, as they extract minerals from their environment. Both macro and micro minerals, much like vitamins, are essential for our body’s critical functions. Major minerals, such as calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus, are key to building and maintaining strong bones and teeth. Meanwhile, sodium and potassium play critical roles in balancing body fluids and managing the transport of nutrients and other compounds in and out of cells.¹⁰

Read More: 4 Surprising Foods That Have More Calcium than Milk

Food supplements go beyond only vitamins and minerals—they can also contain botanicals, amino acids, enzymes, and other substances. These supplements come in various forms, such as tablets, capsules, gummies, powders, and even drinks and energy bars and include:

Omega-3 and Fish Oil 

What makes fish oil special is its high content of omega-3 fatty acids—essential nutrients that our bodies cannot produce on their own, meaning we must get them from our diet.

Fatty fish like salmon and mackerel provide key omega-3s—DHA and EPA. Some plants, like flaxseeds and walnuts, offer a different omega-3, which the body can convert to DHA and EPA. These omega-3s are vital for brain health, growth, and reducing inflammation.¹¹ 

Botanicals/Herbs

Botanicals and herbs are among the oldest forms of food supplements, used for centuries in traditional medicine around the world, to support health and treat various conditions. Examples include echinacea, marketed for immune support, ginkgo biloba, marketed for cognitive health, and turmeric for its claimed anti-inflammatory properties. These plant-based supplements can be found in many forms, from capsules and teas to tinctures and extracts, offering a natural approach to health management.¹²

Weight Loss Supplements

Weight loss supplements are a popular but controversial category, often marketed to suppress appetite, block fat absorption, or boost metabolism. Common ingredients like caffeine, green tea extract, and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are frequently found in these products, but their effectiveness is inconsistent, and they may come with side effects.¹³

Hormones

Hormonal supplements, such as melatonin for sleep or DHEA for reproductive hormone balance, are used to support specific physiological functions. These supplements can help regulate sleep cycles, manage stress, and address age-related hormonal declines. However, they should be used cautiously and in some cases only with a doctor’s prescription, as hormone levels are delicate and can be easily disrupted with overuse.^15,16

Superfood powders

Superfood powders, like spirulina, matcha, and maca, are derived from nutrient-rich plants and algae. These powders are often added to smoothies, juices, or even baked goods to boost their nutritional content. Rich in antioxidants and other beneficial compounds, they are marketed for their potential to enhance energy, support immune function, and reduce inflammation. While some research supports these benefits, the effectiveness of superfood powders can vary, and they should be seen as part of a balanced diet rather than a cure-all.^17,18

Read more in The Vitamin Myth: Are Food Supplements Really Necessary?

Behind the Labels of Your Food Supplements

So, as food supplements come in a wide range of categories and are promising all sorts of health benefits— how do regulations ensure these claims don't get out of hand?

Food supplement labels in the EU are subject to strict regulations to ensure consumer safety and transparency. The labels must provide accurate information about the supplement's composition, including the presence of vitamins such as vitamin K, minerals like zinc, botanical extracts like echinacea, enzymes, antioxidants, and protein sources. Additionally, the labels must specify the serving size and recommended daily intake, warn against exceeding the recommended dosage, and clearly state that the supplement should not be used as a substitute for a balanced diet.¹⁹

Food supplements have strict labelling rules about what they can claim. In the United States, for example, companies cannot assert that their products treat or prevent specific diseases—statements like "reduces heart disease risk" or "prevents dementia" are off-limits. Instead, they can use broader, more ambiguous phrases such as "supports heart health" or "promotes immune function." However, these claims must include a disclaimer stating that the FDA has not evaluated the statement and that the product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.

This regulatory gap allows supplement companies to market their products in a way that suggests benefits, even if there’s little evidence to back those claims. As a result, consumers might interpret phrases like "heart health" as proof of effectiveness, which can be misleading.²⁰

In the European Union, the rules are slightly stricter. Any claims related to health benefits, such as aiding digestion, boosting metabolism, supporting the immune system, or promoting liver health, must be backed by scientific evidence and approved through a rigorous assessment process. The labels must also include warnings about potential side effects, interactions with medications, and advise consumers to consult a healthcare professional if they have any pre-existing health conditions or concerns.¹⁹

Where does the truth lie amid pills, powders and promises?

The food supplement industry is vast and loud, flooding us with countless products that promise everything from better sleep and improved focus to enhanced immunity. But in this overwhelming noise, it’s easy to lose sight of a simple truth: supplements are not a replacement for a healthy diet or a cure-all for our health concerns. While they can fill specific nutritional gaps for certain groups, the idea that they offer miraculous benefits is largely unsubstantiated.

With so much noise and so few clear answers, it begs the question: are most of these supplements truly serving our health, or just feeding our hopes?