The Origin Of Meat Alternatives

When I first encountered tofu, I thought it might be some contemporary fad, born in the kale-and-quinoa corners of our cities. But the origin of tofu – and more broadly of meat alternatives as a concept – has deep roots in ancient religious practices.

Throughout history, people have had various reasons for avoiding meat, often tied to religion or poverty. In some religions, restraint from meat symbolises a higher calling, a sacrifice for the sake of purity. For the poor, meat has historically been out of reach, a luxury reserved for the wealthy, while grains and vegetables served as reliable staples.

The first meat alternative

One of the earliest known meat substitutes is likely tofu. While its exact origin is difficult to trace due to the perishable nature of food, clues from ancient Chinese drawings, particularly those found in a Han dynasty tomb dating back to 206 B.C.E., depict tofu production.^1,2

Illustration of a tofu seller (right) and a sōmen seller (left), from the Songs of the Seventy-one Craftsmen, a poetry anthology written around 1500.

Tofu's emergence as a meat substitute coincided with the arrival of Buddhism in China during the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E.–220 C.E.). At the time, China was predominantly a meat-eating culture, but Buddhism introduced a moral and spiritual need for vegetarianism, leading to the creation of substitutes that mimicked meat’s flavours and textures. In the following centuries, tofu spread to Japan and Indonesia as well.³

History of meat alternatives

The earliest written reference to tofu in 965 C.E. reveals that people viewed the food as a meat alternative. The text praises the virtues of moderation and encourages people to avoid meat, referring to tofu as “mock lamb chops”.⁴ Quite amusing considering that today, in countries like France, the meat industry could bring someone to court for daring such bold claims.⁵

In Medieval Europe, meat alternatives became a necessity during Lent, when Christians were prohibited from eating warm-blooded animals, eggs, and dairy.⁶ So they got creative: instead of mincemeat, they used chopped almonds and grapes and diced bread became a substitute for cracklings.⁷ Many poorer people in the West primarily ate plant-based diets, but more out of necessity rather than choice. 

Then, in the late 1800s, a thousand years of Asian wisdom reached North America. In 1876, the Centennial Exposition, the first World’s Fair held in the United States, showcased tofu and miso.^1,8 The exhibition took place in Philadelphia and celebrated the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence.⁹ The event displayed the technological innovations, industrial progress, and cultural achievements of various nations. And there, between Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone, the first practical typewriter, and bananas, meat alternatives were praised for providing essential nutrients and serving “to a certain extent as a substitute for meat.”^1,10,11

The first commercial meat alternative

Around the same time, a movement to deliberately create meat alternatives was taking root. Once again, religion played a key role: in the United States, the Seventh-day Adventist community advocated for vegetarianism as part of their faith. It is within one of these Adventist communities in Battle Creek, Michigan, that we meet John Harvey Kellogg, the father of the first commercial meat alternative. (Yes, he is also the father of the breakfast cereal and possibly of peanut butter. Big guy.)^12,13,14

Working–and often feuding–with his brother Will Keith, Kellogg was more than just an inventor and businessman.¹⁵ He was a physician, a health fanatic, and one of the first to understand the connection between intestinal bacteria and overall health.¹⁵ He was a staunch advocate of vegetarianism, exercise, sunbathing, and hydrotherapy, and believed that diet – more than anything else – determined health. “A poisoned stomach,” he liked to say, “is not perfectly sane.” He reserved his harshest criticisms for meat, arguing that it weakened rather than strengthened the body.^16,17,18

In 1896, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, after discussing it with Professor and American chemist Charles Dabney, introduced the first commercial meat alternative in the Western world: a canned product called Nuttose.19 Primarily made from peanuts, Nuttose was described as having "somewhat the appearance and flavour of cold roast mutton."¹⁸ Kellogg's wife, Ella, quickly promoted the product by publishing recipes in popular magazines, and by the end of the year, Nuttose was marketed as “health food” in Los Angeles.²⁰ Kellogg made his clear goals explicit in his patents: to create vegetarian foods that could match, if not surpass, meat in both taste and nutrition.¹⁸

A 1959 advertisement for Battle Creek Vegetable Steaks, made using Kellogg's Nuttose, from the Lake Union Herald.

Turning points in the meat alternatives history

Kellogg created a pivotal moment in the history of meat alternatives. Not only did he introduce a fresh focus on nutrition as a reason for choosing plant-based diets; he created a market for commercial meat substitutes, a step beyond homemade recipes. The success of Nuttose – later sold under the name 'Nuteena - was evident as it remained on the market for over thirty years after its launch.¹⁹ This encouraged various inventors to patent new and improved alternatives. In the 1920s soybeans emerged as a key ingredient, with Soy Bean Meat, developed in Tennessee, marking the start of soy’s dominance in this field.²¹ Later, in 1967, British scientists discovered a high-protein fungus, Fusarium venenatum, which became the basis for UK’s Quorn-branded products.²²

Quorn was launched in 1985 by Marlow Foods. All Quorn foods contain mycoprotein as an ingredient, which is derived from the Fusarium venenatum fungus.

Then, in the 2010s, biomimicry revolutionised our ability to mimic meat, with the launch of Beyond Meat’s chicken strips in 2012, followed by the Impossible Burger and the Beyond Burger in 2016.²³,²⁴,²⁵ These products gained attention for being nearly indistinguishable from traditional meat, thanks to advances in science and technology. Texture engineering emerged, allowing the industry to recreate the fibrous structure of muscle tissue using plant proteins. Flavour profile creation progressed with the use of heme iron – an animal blood molecule responsible for meat’s distinct taste – now produced by genetically engineered yeast and featured in the Impossible Burger. Fat replication became possible too, through coconut oil and other plant-based fats.

Linda McCartney Foods was established in 1991 and has been described as one of the most successful mass-market celebrity brands. They produce a range of meat alternatives with soy as the primary ingredient. 

Beyond Meat, Inc. is a producer of plant-based meat substitutes founded in 2009. Their burgers contain pea protein isolates, rice protein, mung bean protein, canola oil, coconut oil, potato starch, apple extract, sunflower lecithin, and pomegranate powder. Image via Getty.

By 2013, the line between "mock" and real meat blurred when researchers at Maastricht University created a burger using stem cells from cow muscle. Do you want to know more about lab-grown meat? Read more here.

In 2020, Singapore became the first country to approve cultured meat for commercial sale, aiming to produce a product indistinguishable from conventional meat, but more sustainable and humane. However, this process requires significant energy, raising questions about its sustainability. This aspect is important, since today the plant-based movement is largely driven not by religion, but by environmental concerns and animal welfare.²⁶ And, the variety of meat alternatives has never been more diverse—pulses, mycoprotein, algae, pea protein, and potentially also cultured meat—leading us to question whether it still makes sense to categorise all these options under the same name.

High-tech alternatives are gaining funding and interest, but are they our best option?

A recent study by Wageningen and Humboldt Universities evaluated various foods that could be considered current meat substitutes – algae, insects, plant-based options, pulses, and cultured meat – based on their sustainability, cultural relevance, and the challenges their commercialisation and public acceptance faces.²⁷

The study found a curious divide: high-tech solutions like cultured meat get the most attention and funding, likely because they offer more control and intellectual property. Meanwhile, simpler, yet more sustainable options – like pulses – are largely ignored because less patentable also means less palatable for industry. 

Perhaps the contrast between historical and modern meat alternatives reveals more than just technological advancement; it highlights our evolving relationship with food. In earlier times, people made do with simple, resourceful solutions, adapting to their circumstances. Today we have the tools to chase near-perfect mimicry, which promises to be appealing to those unwilling to give up meat-based meals. Whether the market for these products will grow to make a dent in meat consumption and production is left to be seen. The irony is that, by pursuing increasingly complex meat alternatives, we might be missing out on the simple, effective solutions right in front of us.